Effect-Oriented Programming

Programming with effects requires a new mindset, an effect-oriented mindset.

Imagine a programmer coming from JavaScript or Python to a statically-typed programming language such as C# or Java. If they continue to program with objects, maps, and strings without introducing their own types, then the benefits of a static type system are lost. In the same way, if a programmer comes to Flix without adapting an effect-oriented mindset then the benefits of the Flix type and effect system are lost.

In Flix, we can give every function the IO effect and call effectful code everywhere, but this is not effect-oriented programming and is a bad programming style. A proper effect-oriented program architecture consists of a functional core, which may use algebraic effects and handlers, surrounded by an imperative shell that performs IO. A good rule of thumb is that IO effect should be close to the main function.

We now illustrate these points with an example.

A Guessing Game — The Wrong Way

Consider the following program written in a mixed style of Flix and Java:

import java.lang.System
import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;
import java.util.{Random => JRandom}

def getSecretNumber(): Int32 \ IO = 
    let rnd = new JRandom();
    rnd.nextInt()

def readGuess(): Result[String, String] \ IO = 
    let reader = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
    let line = reader.readLine();
    if (Object.isNull(line)) 
        Result.Err("no input")
    else 
        Result.Ok(line)

def readAndParseGuess(): Result[String, Int32] \ IO = 
    forM(g <- readGuess(); 
         n <- Int32.parse(10, g)
    ) yield n

def gameLoop(secret: Int32): Unit \ IO = {
    println("Enter a guess:");
    match readAndParseGuess() {
        case Result.Ok(g) => 
            if (secret == g) {
                println("Correct!")
            } else {
                println("Incorrect!");
                gameLoop(secret)
            }
        case Result.Err(_) => 
            println("Not a number? Goodbye.");
            println("The secret was: ${secret}")
    }
}

def main(): Unit \ IO = 
    let secret = getSecretNumber();
    gameLoop(secret)

Here every function, i.e. getSecretNumber, readGuess, readAndParseGuess, gameLoop, and main has the IO effect. The consequence is that every function can do anything. Note how effectful code is scattered everywhere throughout the program.

Understanding, refactoring, and testing a program written in this style is a nightmare.

Programming in a effect-oriented style means that we should define effects for every action that interacts with the outside world. We should then handle these effects close to the main function.

A Guessing Game — The Right Way

Here is what we should have done:

import java.lang.System
import java.io.BufferedReader;
import java.io.InputStreamReader;
import java.util.{Random => JRandom}

eff Guess {
    def readGuess(): Result[String, String]
}

eff Secret {
    def getSecret(): Int32
}

eff Terminal {
    def println(s: String): Unit    
}

def readAndParseGuess(): Result[String, Int32] \ {Guess} = 
    forM(g <- Guess.readGuess(); 
         n <- Int32.parse(10, g)
    ) yield n

def gameLoop(secret: Int32): Unit \ {Guess, Terminal} = {
    Terminal.println("Enter a guess:");
    match readAndParseGuess() {
        case Result.Ok(g) => 
            if (secret == g) {
                Terminal.println("Correct!")
            } else {
                Terminal.println("Incorrect!");
                gameLoop(secret)
            }
        case Result.Err(_) => 
            Terminal.println("Not a number? Goodbye.");
            Terminal.println("The secret was: ${secret}")
    }
}

def main(): Unit \ IO = 
    run {
        let secret = Secret.getSecret();
        gameLoop(secret)
    } with Secret {
        def getSecret(_, resume) = 
            let rnd = new JRandom();
            resume(rnd.nextInt())
    } with Guess {
        def readGuess(_, resume) = 
            let reader = new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in));
            let line = reader.readLine();
            if (Object.isNull(line)) 
                resume(Result.Err("no input"))
            else 
                resume(Result.Ok(line))
    } with Terminal {
        def println(s, resume) = { println(s); resume() }
    }

Here, we have introduced three algebraic effects:

  1. A Guess effect that represents the action of asking the user for a guess.
  2. A Secret effect that represents the action of picking a secret number.
  3. A Terminal effect that represents the action of printing to the console.

We have written each function to only use the relevant effects. For example, the gameLoop function uses the Guess and Terminal effects — and has no other effects. Furthermore, all effects are now handled in one place: in the main function. The upshot is that the business is logic is purely functional. Where impurity is needed, it is precisely encapsulated by the use of effects and handlers.